At the dawn of the 20th century in Spain, severe problems emerged that ranged from an agrarian problem (latifundismo) to an ineffective industrial structure and protectionism that rendered production ineffective.
Regionalism was making a comeback, either with demands for federalism or with calls for fuerismo – special privileges accorded by Carlist taifa kingdoms – returning.
The Roman conquest
Hispania came gradually under Roman control. Civil wars within Rome infuriated Hispania while native tribes provided support on both sides.
Publio and Cneo Escipion eventually defeated the Carthaginians at Okile (modern Arcila in Morocco). Yet, Latin took hold on the peninsula, replacing indigenous languages and encouraging polytheistic religions to flourish.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages, dating from the collapse of Roman civilization until 1492, were an era when society attempted to organize itself on spiritual principles.
In Spain’s case, this lead to an extremely complex state that strangled society. Amid this complex evolution came dynastic turmoil; some supporters supported an absolutist regime such as Don Carlos while others championed nationalism based on Crown and Cortes.
The Renaissance
Once it had completed the Reconquista, Spain focused its energy on exploring the wider world. Her monarchs funded numerous voyages that opened new trade routes and spread Spanish across Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
Success also created political problems as regionalist parties demanded rotation with governments firmly entrenched. Three main approaches to national sovereignty emerged: Carlists supported a nation centered around traditional institutions; moderate and doctrinarian liberals advocated for one grounded in Cortes; while liberalists championed an approach which recognized a Cortes-rooted form of national sovereignty.
The Age of Discovery
The Age of Discovery marked a new era of exploration and colonization. Spain’s monarchs sent out explorers such as Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro to conquer powerful indigenous empires in Mexico and Peru, yielding wealth through gold and silver mining operations.
Contact between European explorers and indigenous populations had significant ramifications on both parties involved, as they traded goods, technologies, religions and social structures with each other.
The Age of Inquisition
There are various hypotheses about why the Inquisition was established, including that it was created as a response to rising anti-Jewish sentiment in medieval Europe.
Another aspect is its use as a way of unifying Spain with religion, following in line with Florentine political philosophers such as Guicciardini and Machiavelli who believed piety to be an effective means of strengthening nations.
The Age of Alfonso XII
Alfonso XII, Queen Isabel II’s eldest son, was forced to assume control of the throne at an early age and take responsibility for it himself.
He faced immediate accusations that he had not fathered his own offspring; these rumors linked the queen with Enrique Puigmolto y Mayans, captain of the guard.
He was also less-than-discreet in his extramarital affairs. He fathered children from two separate opera singers outside his marriage.
The First Republic
Due to economic changes which had led to the fall of monarchy, internal opposition movements could now form. Teachers, students and intellectuals formed a democratic left-wing front; while workers organized through trade unions or civil fronts to join these movements.
These groups took three primary positions on national sovereignty. Some saw it residing with the Crown or traditional institutions like Cortes as having ultimate authority.
The Second Republic
On 12 July 1936, Guardia de Asalto militiamen executed pro-monarchist Jose Calvo Sotelo and cemented their commitment to a military coup that would ignite civil war within days.
Payne highlights the efforts of Spain’s Republican faction to introduce democratic political systems and implement major reforms across politics, religion, education, culture and public works.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera
Primo de Rivera’s regime may have brought stability to Spain, yet his administration was unable to revitalise its political life. His so-called apolitical party Union Patriotica quickly proved to be no less political.
His greatest victory was defeating Morocco in 1927. To accomplish this feat, he faced rising regional nationalism, agrarian unrest and caciquismo; additionally he created a committee charged with creating a constitution for Spain.
The Third Republic
Goya’s paintings vividly encapsulate the violence and bloodshed associated with Third Republic governments tumbling regularly due to competition among socialists, liberals, conservatives and republicans for control. His depictions vividly capture these horrific battles that claimed lives daily.
Spain was beset with unresolved issues in terms of agriculture (latifundism), regional development and economy. At that time it was also undergoing its transition into democracy which attracted politicians and analysts from around the world.